- 1. GIA TP HOÀ CHÍ MINH TRÖÔØNG ÑAÏI HOÏC KHOA HOÏC XAÕ HOÄI VAØ NHAÂN VAÊN Giaùo trình Toâ Minh Thanh NHAØ XUAÁT BAÛN ÑAÏI HOÏC QUOÁC GIA TP HOÀ CHÍ MINH – 2003 1
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- 3. trình Hình thaùi hoïc tieáng Anh ñöôïc hình thaønh döïa treân tö lieäu ñaõ ñöôïc giaûng daïy trong thôøi gian qua cho sinh vieân chuyeân ngöõ cuûa Khoa Ngöõ vaên Anh, Tröôøng Ñaïi hoïc Khoa hoïc Xaõ hoäi vaø Nhaân vaên - Ñaïi hoïc Quoác gia Thaønh phoá Hoà Chí Minh. Giaùo trình naøy ñöôïc bieân soaïn nhaèm trang bò cho sinh vieân caùch tieáp caän mang tính thöïc haønh moân hoïc ñaày tính lyù thuyeát naøy. Giaùo trình Hình thaùi hoïc tieáng Anh trình baøy moät caùch coù heä thoáng moät soá khaùi nieäm cô baûn veà hình thaùi hoïc vaø nhieàu kieåu phaân tích töø vöïng tieáng Anh. Beân caïnh ñoù, giaùo trình naøy cuõng chuù yù ñeán caû keát caáu noäi taïi laãn yù nghóa bieåu ñaït cuûa chuùng. Noùi moät caùch khaùc, taøi lieäu naøy coù lieân quan tôùi: Hình vò, tha hình vò, töø vöïng vaø caùc tieåu loaïi cuûa chuùng trong tieáng Anh hieän ñaïi; Caùc quy trình hình thaønh vaø caùc quy taéc phaân tích töø vöïng tieáng Anh. Trong quaù trình bieân soaïn giaùo trình naøy chuùng toâi ñaõ tham khaûo vaø trích daãn nhieàu tö lieäu ñaõ ñöôïc coâng boá, ñaëc bieät laø cuûa Arnold (1986), Jackson (1980) vaø Stageberg (1965). Coù theå noùi, muïc tieâu duy nhaát cuûa chuùng toâi khi bieân soaïn giaùo trình naøy laø nhaèm cung caáp cho sinh vieân moät löôïng thoâng tin caàn thieát veà lónh vöïc thuù vò vaø thaät söï coù ích lôïi naøy döôùi söùc eùp cuûa moät thôøi löôïng heát söùc khieâm toán vaãn thöôøng daønh cho moân Hình thaùi hoïc tieáng Anh. Chuùng toâi xin ñöôïc theå hieän loøng bieát ôn chaân thaønh ñoái vôùi Tieán só Nguyeãn Tieán Huøng veà nhöõng ñoùng goùp vaø pheâ bình phaûn bieän tích cöïc cuûa oâng daønh cho giaùo trình naøy. Ñaây laø laàn ñaàu tieân giaùo trình naøy ñöôïc xuaát baûn, haún khoâng traùnh khoûi sai soùt. Chuùng toâi mong nhaän ñöôïc nhieàu yù kieán ñoùng goùp cuûa baïn ñoïc ñeå giaùo trình ngaøy caøng hoaøn thieän hôn. YÙ kieán ñoùng goùp xin göûi veà: Hoäi ñoàng Khoa hoïc vaø Ñaøo taïo Khoa Ngöõ vaên Anh, Tröôøng Ñaïi hoïc Khoa hoïc Xaõ hoäi vaø Nhaân vaên – Ñaïi hoïc Quoác gia Thaønh phoá Hoà Chí Minh, 10-12 Ñinh Tieân Hoaøng, Q.1, ñieän thoaïi: 8243328. Thaønh phoá Hoà Chí Minh, ngaøy 30 thaùng 7 naêm 2003. Toâ Minh Thanh 3
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- 5. notational symbols...........................................................................................7 Unit one: MORPHEMES....................................................................................................9 1. Definition – Characteristics ............................................................................................9 2. How to distinguish Morphemes from Phonemes, Syllables and Words? .....................9 3. Classification of Morphemes .........................................................................................11 3.1. Free morphemes vs. Bound morphemes.................................................................11 3.2. Bases (also called Roots) vs. Affixes .......................................................................12 4. Variations of Morphemes — Allomorphs .....................................................................14 4.1. Definition .................................................................................................................14 4.2. Selection of Allomorphs: ..........................................................................................14 4.3. Types of Allomorphs ................................................................................................15 EXERCISES........................................................................................................................16 EXTRA READING .............................................................................................................36 Unit two: DERIVATION AND INFLECTION ..............................................................41 1. Derivation .......................................................................................................................41 1.1. Definition ..................................................................................................................41 1.2. Types of Derivational Affixes ..................................................................................41 1.3. Morphological rules..................................................................................................41 2. Inflection .......................................................................................................................45 2.1. Definition ..................................................................................................................45 2.2. Various Kinds of Inflection......................................................................................45 3. How to distinguish Derivation from Inflection ............................................................46 3.1. Derivation .................................................................................................................46 3.2. Inflection...................................................................................................................47 EXERCISES........................................................................................................................47 Unit three: IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENTS IN MORPHOLOGY.............................65 1. Definition........................................................................................................................65 2. Some Recommendations on IC division........................................................................66 3. Diagram ..........................................................................................................................66 EXERCISES........................................................................................................................67 5
- 6. Definition........................................................................................................................89 2. Characteristics ...............................................................................................................89 2.1. Indivisibility ..........................................................................................................89 2.2. Internal stability and Positional mobility...........................................................90 3. Classification ..................................................................................................................91 3.1. Classification of words according to their structure: ..........................................91 3.2. Classification of words according to their word-formation processes: coinage, borrowing, compounding, blending, clipping, acronymy, conversion, affixation and back-formation. .....................................94 EXERCISES......................................................................................................................109 EXTRA READING ...........................................................................................................121 Answer keys ...................................................................................................................123 Bibliography ..................................................................................................................140 6
- 7. the symbols used in this text follow conventions, but since conventions vary, the following list indicates the meanings assigned to them here. n = noun [U] = uncountable [C] = countable pl = plural sing = singular adj = adjective adv = adverb prep = preposition v = verb phr v = phrasal verb sth = something sb = somebody mono-trans = mono-transitive verb complex trans = complex transitive verb etc = et cetera meaning “and other similar things” or “and so on” fig = figurative esp = especially usu = usually fml = formal infml = informal derog = derogatory, insulting attrib = attributive pred = predicative Brit = British abbr = abbreviated I = intransitive verb Ipr = intransitive verb + prepositional phrase Ip = intransitive verb + adverbial particle La = linking verb + adjective (phrase) Tn = transitive verb + noun (phrase) Tn.pr = transitive verb + noun (phrase) + prepositional phrase Tn.p = transitive verb + noun (phrase) + adverbial particle Cn.t = complex transitive verb + noun (phrase) + to-infinitive phrase 7
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- 9. – CHARACTERISTICS What is a morpheme? • ‘A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit in a language.’ [Richards, Platt & Weber, 1987: 183] • ‘A morpheme is a short segment of language that meets three criteria: It is a word or part of a word that has meaning. It cannot be divided into smaller meaningful parts without violation of its meaning or without meaningless remainders. It recurs in different verbal environments with a relatively stable meaning.’ [Stageberg, 1965: 85] Ex.1: The English word unkind consists of two morphemes: the base kind the lexical meaning of which is ‘friendly and thoughtful to others’ and the prefix un– the lexical meaning of which is ‘not’; the English word talks consists of two morphemes: the base talk the lexical meaning of which is ‘say something’ and the suffix –s, which has no lexical meaning and which is used to show that the verb talks is in the third person singular present-tense form. In other words, we can recognize a morpheme by either its lexical or its grammatical meaning. Ex.2: Straight is an English adjective meaning ‘without a bend or curve’. By dividing straight, we get smaller meaningful units of trait /tre1t/, rate /re1t/and ate/e1t/; but their meanings violate the meaning of straight. We also get the meaningless remainders: /s–/, /st–/ and /str–/. Therefore, straight must be considered a morpheme, the smallest meaningful unit in English. Ex.3: Bright means ‘light’, and brighten means ‘make light’. This leads us to conclude that –en means ‘make’. We also know that –en recurs with a stable meaning in words like cheapen, darken, deepen, soften, stiffen, etc. Therefore, –en must be considered a morpheme. 2. HOW TO DISTINGUISH MORPHEMES FROM PHONEMES, SYLLABLES AND WORDS? 2.1. MORPHEMES vs. PHONEMES A morpheme differs from a phoneme in that the former has meaning whereas the latter does not. Although phonemes have no meaning, they have distinctive features that help to distinguish meaning. 9
- 10. consonant of bitch is [− aspirated] while that of pitch is [+ aspirated]. Ex.2: The vowel of pin is [+ close] and thus [− open] while that of pan is [+ open] and thus [− close]. A morpheme may consist of only a single phoneme like the /–z/ in goes. But the phoneme /z/ and this morpheme are by no means identical. The phoneme /z/ occurs many times where it has nothing to do with this morpheme. For example, zoo /zu:/ and rose /r6υz/ both contain /z/ but the /z/ here has nothing to do with the morpheme realized as /–z/ in goes. Morphemes are generally short sequences of phonemes: the morpheme {of} consists of two phonemes — / 4 / and / v /. Most English morphemes are intermediate in size between {of} and {strange} and consist of about two to six phonemes. 2.2. MORPHEMES vs. SYLLABLES A morpheme happens to be identical to a syllable, e.g. the morpheme {strange} and the syllable /stre1nd2/; and so are many English morphemes. However, any matches between morphemes and syllables are fortuitous. Many poly-syllabic words are mono-morphemic. lion /’laI6n/: two syllables – one morpheme crocodile /’kr4k6da1l/: E.g. three syllables – one morpheme Connecticut /k6’net1k6t/: four syllables – one morpheme On the contrary, both /g6υ/ and /–z/ in goes /g6υz/ are morphemes, though altogether they are but a single syllable. That is, goes is mono-syllabic but poly-morphemic. Briefly, in some cases a morpheme may consist of one syllable or several whole syllables. In other cases, it is only part of a syllable. In fact, to form a morpheme, some phonemes are usually combined together without any regard to their status as syllables. In English, a morpheme is not identical with a syllable. The syllable is a phonological unit whereas the morpheme is the basic unit in morphology. 2.3. MORPHEMES vs. WORDS Words are made up of morphemes. In other words, morphemes are the constituents of words. A word may be composed of one or more morphemes: One morpheme: boy, desire 10
- 11. + –ish, desir(e) + –able Three morphemes: boy + –ish + –ness, desir(e) + –abil + –ity Four morphemes: gentle + man + –li + –ness un– + desir(e) + –abil– + –ity More than four morphemes: un– + gentle + man + –li + –ness anti– + dis– + establish + –ment + –ari + –an + –ism 3. CLASSIFICATION OF MORPHEMES It is always found that morphemes can be grouped into certain classes, each with a characteristic distribution. There are two basic classes of morphemes: free morphemes and bound morphemes. Affixes are almost always bound whereas bases can be either free or bound. 3.1. BOUND MORPHEMES vs. FREE MORPHEMES 3.1.1. FREE MORPHEMES • A free morpheme is ‘one that can be uttered alone with meaning’. [Stageberg, 1965: 87] • A free morpheme ‘can be used on its own’. [Richards, Platt & Weber, 1987: 31] • Free morphemes ‘may stand alone as words in their own right, as well as enter into the structure of other words’. [Jackson, 1980: 53] E.g. Drink is a free morpheme which occurs as a word on its own and as a free base in drinkable, undrinkable, drinking-water, drinking-fountain, etc. 3.1.2. BOUND MORPHEMES • A bound morpheme ‘cannot be uttered alone with meaning. It is always annexed to one or more morphemes to form a word’. [Stageberg, 1965: 87] • A bound morpheme ‘is never used alone but must be used with another morpheme’. [Richards, Platt & Weber, 1987: 31] • Bound morphemes ‘may occur only if they combine with another morpheme’. [Jackson, 1980: 53] E.g. the English suffix –ing /–17/ must be used after a verb form: writing, living, driving, etc. 11
- 12. ROOTS) vs. AFFIXES 3.2.1. A BASE (also called A ROOT) is ‘that morpheme in a word that has the principal meaning’ [Stageberg, 1965: 87-88]. It is the central morpheme, the basic part of a word. There are two kinds of bases: A FREE BASE is a base ‘which may be a word on its own right once the other morphemes have been stripped away’ [Jackson, 1980: 53]. E.g. break in unbreakable, act in deactivated, friend in friendship, etc. A BOUND BASE is a base (i.e. it is the basic part of a word and has the principal meaning) which can never occur on its own but can only be joined to other bound morphemes. E.g. The bound base of audience, audible, audition, auditory, auditorium, etc. is audi–; that of suicide, patricide, matricide, infanticide, etc. is –cide; and that of suspender, pendant, pendulum, etc. is –pend or pend–. 3.2.2. AN AFFIX is a morpheme (usually a bound morpheme) ‘that occurs before or behind a base’ [Stageberg, 1965: 87]. 3.2.2.1. Classified according to their POSITION in words, affixes have three main subclasses: • PREFIXES ‘occur before a base’ [Stageberg, 1965: 91] as in import, prefix, reconsider, unkind, understate, over-react, etc. • SUFFIXES ‘occur after a base’ [Stageberg, 1965: 92] as in shrinkage, noisy, quickly, nails, dreamed, mouse-like, etc. • INFIXES are inserted within words, e.g. the infix –um–in Tagalog, which shows that a verb is in the past tense: sulat (to write) sumulat (wrote). Affixes may be added directly to bases or to constructions consisting of a base plus one or more (either free or bound) morphemes. Thus we have: work + –s = works worker + –s = workers workshop + –s = workshops 3.2.2.2. Classified according to their FUNCTION in words, affixes have two main subclasses: • INFLECTIONAL AFFIXES, ‘which are always suffixes in English, perform a grammatical function; they are representatives of grammatical categories’. [Jackson, 1980: 53] The only eight inflectional suffixes in English are: 12
- 13. morpheme {–S1}: book–s, apple–s, box–es, etc. the noun possessive morpheme {–S2}: man–‘s, girl–‘s, students–‘, Alice–‘s, etc. the verb third person singular present tense morpheme {–S3}: walk–s, find–s, mix–es, etc. the verb present participle morpheme {–ing1}: play–ing, typ(e)–ing, dig(g)–ing, etc. the verb past simple morpheme {–D1}: flow–ed, work–ed, creat(e)–ed, drank, broke, thought, show–ed, etc. the verb past participle morpheme{–D2}: flow–ed, work–ed, creat(e)–ed, drunk, broken, thought, show–n, etc. the adjective or adverb comparative morpheme {–er1}: small–er, saf(e)–er, thinn–er, long–er, fast–er, hard–er, etc. the adjective or adverb superlative morpheme {–est1}: small–est, saf(e)– est, thinn–est, long–est, fast–est, hard–est, etc. • DERIVATIONAL AFFIXES, ‘which may be prefixes or suffixes in English, have a lexical function; they create new words out of existing words or morphemes by their addition’. [Jackson, 1980: 53] Derivational affixes may be of two kinds: Class-changing derivational affixes change the word class of the word to which they are attached: –al added to nation makes an adjective out of a noun. Class-maintaining derivational affixes do not change the word class of the word to which they are attached. Derivational prefixes are usually class-maintaining: re–mark, dis–enthrone, un–refined, etc. There is not usually more than one prefix in a word in English and from what was said in the previous paragraphs, it is clear that English prefixes are always derivational. There is never more than one inflectional suffix in English words and it always comes last. A number of derivational suffixes may, however, occur. Derivational suffixes need not close off a word; that is, after a derivational suffix one can sometimes add another derivational suffix and can frequently add an inflectional suffix. The relative order of morphemes in the English word is, then, as follows: 13
- 14. base – derivational suffix(es) – inflectional suffix Generally speaking, bases are central and affixes are peripheral. In English, affixes are almost always bound morphemes and bases are nearly always free. 4. VARIATIONS OF MORPHEMES — ALLOMORPHS 4.1. DEFINITION: An allomorph is ‘any of the different forms of a morpheme’. [Richards, Platt & Weber, 1987: 9] E.g. In English, the inflectional noun plural morpheme {–S1} is often shown in writing by adding –(e)s to the end of a singular noun, e.g. cat /k`t/ → cats /k`ts/. Sometimes this morpheme is pronounced /–z/, e.g. dog /d49/ → dogs /d49z/, and sometimes it is pronounced /–Iz/, e.g. box /b4ks / → box /’b4ks1z/. It is believed that /–s/, /–z/, /–Iz/ are three allomorphs of the inflectional noun plural morpheme {–S1} because: They are in complementary distribution: /–s / occurs only after the voiceless consonants /p, t, k, f, θ/; /–Iz / occurs only after the sibilant consonants /s, Z, ∫, 2, t∫, d2/; /–z/ occurs after voiced sounds, including all vowels and voiced consonants except /z/, /2/, and /d2/. They all have the same meaning, either lexical or grammatical: /–s/, /–z/, /–Iz/ all refer to ‘plurality’ and all mean ‘more than one’. Thus, an allomorph can also be defined as a variant of a morpheme which occurs in a certain definable environment. And a morpheme is a group of two or more allomorphs which conform to certain, usually rather clearly definable, criteria of distribution and meaning. The concept of morphemes and allomorphs is one of the most basic in descriptive linguistics. Its importance both as a tool and as an insight into the operation of language can hardly be underestimated. 4.2. SELECTION OF ALLOMORPHS: The three allomorphs /–z/, /–s/ and /–Iz/ of the inflectional noun plural morpheme {–S1} are phonologically conditioned since each can occur only when a certain clearly defined condition occurs. In this case, the conditioning factor is the phonetic nature of their preceding phoneme: /–s/ occurs only after the voiceless consonants /p, t, k, f, θ/; /–Iz/ occurs only after the groove fricatives and 14
- 15. ∫, 2, t∫, d2/; and /–z/ occurs only after voiced sounds, except the three voiced sibilants /z, 2, d2/: cat /k`t/ + –s /–s/ → cats /k`ts/ voiceless dog /d49/ box /b4ks/ + –s /–z/ → dogs /d49z/ voiced + –es /–1z / → box /’b4ks1z/ sibilant We may, therefore, say that /–s/, /–Iz/, and /–z/ are three phonologically conditioned allomorphs of the inflectional noun plural morpheme {–S1}. This means that, if we understand the facts of distribution, we can accurately predict which of the three will occur in any place where any one of them could occur. The selection of allomorphs may also be morphologically conditioned. In this case, the selection is determined by the specific morpheme or morphemes forming the context, rather than by any phonologic feature: the plural of ox /4ks/ is oxen /‘4ks6n/; /–6n/ is a morphologically conditioned allomorph of the inflectional noun plural morpheme {–S1} which is used with this stem /4ks/: ox /4ks/ + –en /−6n/ → oxen /‘4ks6n/ sibilant If a morpheme has numerous allomorphs, as many do, it is awkward to have a list of all of them every time the morpheme is mentioned. Instead, it is desirable to have a single symbol to indicate a morpheme, comprehending all the variant forms in which it can appear. For this purpose we use braces {}. The braces {} indicate a morphemic representative in which one arbitrarily selected symbol is used to represent each morpheme and comprehend all its allomorphs. It does not directly give any information about pronunciation. For instance, {–S1} can be used to refer to the inflectional noun plural morpheme and all of its allomorphs. 4.3. TYPES OF ALLOMORPHS ADDITIVE ALLOMORPHS: To signify some difference in meaning, something is added to a word. For example, the past tense form of most English verbs is formed by adding the 15
- 16. can be pronounced as either /–t/, or /–d/ or /–Id/: ask + –ed /a:sk/ + /–t/, liv(e) + –ed /lIv/ + /–d/, need + –ed /ni:d/ + /–Id/. REPLACIVE ALLOMORPHS: To signify some difference in meaning, a sound is used to replace another sound in a word. For example, the /1/ in drink is replaced by the /æ/ in drank to signal the simple past. This is symbolized as follows: /dr`7k/ = /dr17k/ + / 1 → ` /. SUBTRACTIVE ALLOMORPHS: To signify some difference in meaning, something is deleted from a word. For example, the letter a is deleted from zopa to signal that this Russian noun is in the plural form of the possessive case. SUPPLETIVE ALLOMORPHS: To signify some difference in meaning, there is a complete change in the shape of a word. For example, go + the suppletive allomorph of {–D1} = went; be + the suppletive allomorph of {–S3} = is; bad + the suppletive allomorph of {–er1} = worse; good + the suppletive allomorph of {–est1} = best. THE ZERO ALLOMORPH: There is no change in the shape of a word though some difference in meaning is identified. For example, the past tense form of hurt is formed by adding the zero allomorph of {–D1} to this word. EXERCISES A. THE EXERCISES OF MORPHEMES EXERCISE 1: Identify the number of the morphemes in each of the given words. Complete the table given below. 1 play 2 replay 3 date 13 unable 4 antedate 14 mahogany 5 hygiene 15 rain 6 weak 16 rainy 16 1 2 (re– and play) 11 keeper 12 able 1
- 17. cheaper 10 keep 2 (cheap and –ly) 20 honest EXERCISE 2: Identify the bound morpheme(s) in of each of the given words. Complete the table given below. 1 speaker 2 –er 6 delivery kingdom 7 intervene 3 phonemic 8 revise 4 idolize 9 dreamed 5 selective 10 undone inter–, –vene EXERCISE 3: Underline the base in each of the given words. Complete the table given below. 1 womanly 6 lighten 11 unlikely 2 endear 7 enlighten 12 pre-war 3 failure 8 friendship 13 subway 4 famous 9 befriend 14 falsify 5 infamous Bostonian 15 unenlivened 10 EXERCISE 4: Identify the meaning of the affix in of each of the given words. Complete the table given below. 1 antedate 2 replay 3 manly 4 keeper 5 unable 6 rainy 7 cheapest 8 subway 9 import 10 The prefix ante– means ‘before’. maltreat The suffix –er means ‘a person who …’. 17
- 18. the meaning of the bound base in the given sets of words. Complete the table given below. audience, audible, audition and auditorium suicide, patricide, matricide 2 and infanticide oral, orate, oration, oracle 3 and oratory aquaplane, aquarium, 4 aquatic and aquaduct mortuary, moribund, mortal 5 and immortal corporation, corporeal, 6 corps and corpse tenable, tenant, tenure and 7 tenacious pendulum, suspender, 8 pendant and impending manuscript, manacle, 9 manual and manicure eject, inject, inject, reject 10 and projectile 1 The bound base audi– means ‘hear’. The bound base –cide means ‘killing’. NOTES: 1. The bound base audi– means ‘hear’. - audible /‘0:d6bl/ adj - audibility /,0:d6‘b1l6t1/ n [U] capability of being heard clearly. - audition /0:‘d1~n/ n [C] trial hearing of a person who wants to perform as an actor, a singer, a musician, etc.: I’m going to the audition but I don’t expect I’ll get a part. - audition v 18 that can be heard clearly: Her voice is scarcely audible above the noise of the wind. 1. [I] take part in an audition: Which part are you auditioning for? 2. [Tn] give an audition to sb: None of the actresses we auditioned is suitable.
- 19. adj of or concerned with hearing: the auditory nerve. - auditorium /,0:d1‘t0:r16m/ n (pl~s) part of a theatre, concert hall, etc. in which an audience sits. 2. The bound base –cide means ‘killing’. - suicide /‘sju:sa1d/ n 1. [U] killing oneself intentionally: to commit suicide; 2. [C] act of this: There have been three suicides this week. - patricide /‘p`tr1sa1d/ n 1. [U, C] (act of) killing one’s own father: to commit patricide; 2. [C] person who guilty of this. - matricide /‘m`tr1sa1d/ n 1. [C, U] (act of) killing one’s own mother: to commit matricide; 2. [C] person who does this. - infanticide /1n‘f`nt1sa1d/ n 1. [U] crime of killing an infant: to commit infanticide; 2. [C] person who kills an infant. 3. The bound base ora– means ‘mouth’ or ‘speak’. - oration /4‘re1~n/ n [C] formal speech made on a public occasion esp as part of a ceremony: a funeral oration. - oracle /‘4r6kl/ n [C] priest(ess) giving the answers: to consult the oracle. - oratory /‘4r6tr1/ n [U] (art of) public speaking, esp when used skilfully to affect an audience: Some politicians are famous for their oratory. - orator /‘4r6t6/ n (fml) (a) person who makes formal speeches in public; (b) person who is good at public speaking. 4. The bound base aqua– or aque–means ‘water’. - aquaplane /‘`kw6ple1n/ n [C] board on which a person stands while being towed across water by a ship or boat. 19
- 20. n [C] structure for carrying water across country, esp one built like a bridge over a valley or low ground. - aqueous /‘e1kw16s/ adj of or like water, produced by water: chemicals dissolved in an aqueous solution. - aquarium /6‘kwe6r16m/ n [C] (building containing an) artificial pond or glass where live fish and other water creatures and plants are kept. - aquatic /6‘kw`t1k/ adj [usu attrib] 1. (of plants, animals, etc.) growing or living in or near water: Many forms of aquatic life inhabit ponds. 2. (of sports) taking place on or in water: Swimming and water-skiing are both aquatic sports. 5. The bound base mor(t)– means ‘death’ or ‘dead’. - mortuary /‘m0:t~6r1/ n adj - mortal adj [C] room or building (e.g. part of a hospital) in which dead bodies are kept before being buried or cremated. [attrib] (fml) of mortuary rites. death or burial: that must be die; fatal; causing death: a mortal wound/ injury. n - immortal /‘m0:tl/ adj n - moribund /‘m4r1b∧nd/ adj [C] human being: ordinary mortals. living for ever, that will not be dead. [C] immortal being, god. at the point of death; about to come to an end: a moribund civilization, industry or custom. 6. The bound base corp– means either ‘the whole physical body of a human being or an animal’ or ‘group of people working or acting as a unit’. - corps /k0:(r)/ n 20 (pl unchanged /k0:(r)z/) [CGp] 1. (a) military force made up of two or more divisions: the 6th Army Corps (b) one of the technical branches of an army: the
- 21. Corps; 2. a group of people involved in a particular activity: the Diplomatic Corps, the press corps. - corpse /k0:ps/ n [C] dead body esp of a human being. - corporation /,k0:p6‘re1~n/ n [CGp] 1. group of people authorised to act as an individual, e.g. for business purposes. 2. group of people elected to govern a town; council. - corporeal /k0:‘p0:r16l/ adj of or for the body; material; bodily. 7. The bound base ten– means ‘hold’. - tenable (for…) adj [pred] (of an office or position) that can be held for a certain time: The lectureship is tenable for a period of three years. - tenant n [C] 1. person who pays rent to a landlord/ landlady for the use of a room, a piece of land, etc.; 2. person who occupies a particular building or piece of land but does not own it. - tenure /‘tenjυ6/ n [U] holding of an office, a piece of land or other property. - tenacious /te‘ne1~6s/ adj resolute; keeping a firm hold on property, principles, life, etc: She’s tenacious in defence of her rights. 8. The bound base pend– means ‘hang’. - pendulum /‘pendjυl6m/ n [C] weight hung on a cord from a fixed point so that it can swing freely. - pendant /‘pend6nt/ n [C] ornament that hangs from a chain worn round the neck. - suspender /s6s‘pend6(r)/ n 1. [C esp pl] (Brit) short elastic strap for holding up a sock or stocking by its top; 2. suspenders [pl] (US) = braces. - impending /1m‘pend17/ adj about to happen: his impending retirement, visit, arrival, departure, etc. 21
- 22. base man– means ‘hand’. - manicure /‘m`n1kjυ6(r)/ n [U, C] treatment for the hands and finger nails: have a manicure once a week; do a course in manicure. - manuscript /‘m`njυskr1p/ n (abbr MS) 1. thing written by hand: [attrib] a manuscript copy of a typed letter; 2. author’s written or typed work which has not been printed yet: submit a manuscript to an editor. - manacle /‘m`n6kl/ n (usu pl) one of a pair of chains or metal bands for binding the hands or feet. - manual /‘m`nυj6l/ adj done with or controlled by the hands: manual labor; n [C] keyboard of an organ, played with the hands. 10. The bound base ject– means ‘throw’ or ‘shoot’. 10.1. The prefix e− means ‘out(ward)’: - eject (from sth) v 1. [Tn, Tn.pr] ∼ sb/sth (from sth) (fml) force sb/sth out, expel sb/sth: The noisy youths were ejected from the cenima; 2 [Tn] send (sth) out, usu violently or suddenly: lava ejected from a volcano; 3 [I, Ipr] ∼ (from sth) be thrown quickly from an aircraft in an emergency, so that one can descend by parachute: As the plane fell quickly toward the ground, the pilot had to eject. 10.2. The prefix in− means ‘in(ward)’ or ‘into’: - inject v [Tn, Tn.pr] ∼ sth (into sb/sth); ∼ sb/sth (with sth) force (a drug or other liquid) into sb/sth with a syringe or similar implement: inject peniciline into sb’s arm, leg, etc. 10.3. The prefix pro− means ‘forward’: - project v 22 1. [I, Tn, Tn.pr] ∼ sth (into sth); send or throw sth outward or forward: an apparatus to project missiles into space.
- 23. n adj [C] object to be shot forward, esp from a gun; 1. that can be sent forward through the air, water: projectile missiles; 2. that can send objects: projectile force. 10.4. The prefix re− means ‘back(ward)’: 1. [Tn] refuse to accept (sb/sth): He rejected my job; 2. [Tn] put (sth) aside, throw (sth) away as not to be used, chosen, done, etc: reject over-ripe fruit. - reject v EXERCISE 6: Identify the meaning of the bound base in each of the given words and then give as many words with the same bound base as you can. Complete the table given below. 1 2 revise contradict 3 recur 6 inspect 7 oppose 8 –dict = ‘say’ dictate, dictator, dictation, diction, dictum, contradict, contradiction, contradictory, contradictorily, etc. intervene 5 devise, visible, visionary, (tele)vision, visibility, (audio-)visual, supervise, etc. regress 4 –vise = ‘see’ rodent 23
- 24. base –vise/ vis– means ‘see’. - revise v [Tn] re-examine sth in order to improve or correct it: revise a manuscript before publication. - devise v [Tn] think out (a plan, a system, a tool, etc); invent: devise a scheme for redeveloping the city center. - vision n [U] power of seeing, sight: have a perfect vision, poor, blurred, etc. vision. - visionary adj having or showing foresight or wisdom: visionary leaders, writers, paintings, ideals, etc. - visible adj ∼ (to sb/sth) that can be seen, in sight: The hills were barely visible through the mist. - visibility n [U] fact or state of being seen. - visual adj concerned with or used in seeing: visual images, effects, etc. - audio-visual adj using both sight and sound: audiovisual centers. 2. The bound base –dict/ dict– means ‘say’. - contradict /,k4ntr6‘d1kt/ v 24 1. [I, Tn] say sth that conflicts with (sth said or written) by (sb): That is
- 25. you dare contradict (me)?; 2. [Tn] (of facts, evidence, etc) be contrary to sth; conflict with: The two statements contradict each other. - dictate sth v [I, Ipr, Tn, Tn.pr] ∼ (sth) to (sb) say or read aloud (words to be typed, written down or recorded on tape): The teacher dictate a letter the class. - diction n [U] style or manner of speaking or (sometimes) writing: Clarity of diction is visual for a public speaker. - dictum n (pl ∼s or –ta /–t6/) saying; maxim: ‘Knowledge is power’ is a well-known dictum. - dictionary n [C] book the lists and explains the words of a language: an English dictionary. 3. The bound base –gress means ‘go’. - regress v [I, Ipr] ∼ (sth) (fml) return to/ cause (sth) to go back to an earlier or more primitive state or form. - regressive adj making a continuous backward movement. - regression n [U] moving backward. - progress /’pr6υgres/n [U] onward or forward movement: The walkers were making slow progress up the rocky path. - progress /pr6’gres/ v [I] cause (sth) to move forward: The work is progressing steadily. - progressive /pr6’gres1v/ adj making a continuous forward movement: a progressive step. - progression /pr6’gre∫n/n [U] ∼ (from sth) ∼ (to sth) moving forward, developing. - egress /’1: gres/ n 1. [U] (law) (right of) going out; 2. [C] (dated fml) way out, exit: a means of egress. 25
- 26. n [U] (fml) going in; (right of) entrance: a means of ingress 4. The bound base –vene means ‘come’. - intervene /,1nt6’vi:n/ v [I] come between others in during the years that intervene. - intervening adj coming between: when she came back, she found that much had changed in the intervening years. - convene /k6n’vi:n/ v 1. [Tn] summon (people) to come together: convene the members; 2. [I] come together (for a meeting, etc): The tribunal will convene tomorrow. - contravene /,k4ntr6’vi:n/ v [Tn] act or be contrary to (a law, etc), break (a law, etc): You are contravening the regulations. - supervene /,sju:p6’vi:n/ v [I] (fml) occur as an interruption or change: She was working well until illness supervened. time: 5. The bound base –cur means ‘run’. - recur /r1‘k3:(r)/ v [I] occur again, happen repeatedly: a recurring problem, error, illness. - recurrence /r1‘k3:r6ns/ n [C, N] (instance of) recurring; repetition: the recurrence of an illness, problem, error. - current /‘k∧r6nt/ adj happening now, of the present time: current issues, problems, prices. - current /‘k∧r6nt/ n [C] movement of water, air, etc flowing in a certain direction: - currency /‘k∧r6ns1/ n [U, C] money system in use in a country: gold, paper currency; trading in foreign currencies; a strong currency. 6. The bound base –spect means ‘look’. - inspect /in‘spekt/ v 26 [Tn] examine (sth) closely: The customs officer inspected my passport suspiciously.
- 27. n [pl] (usu fml) specs = glasses = a pair of lenses in a frame used to help a person eyesight. - spectacle n [C] impressive, remarkable or interesting sight: The sunrise seen from high in the mountains was a tremendous spectacle. - prospect /‘pr4spekt/ n [C] 1. (dated) wide view of a landscape: a magnificent prospect of mountain peaks and lakes; 2. picture in the mind or imagination, esp. of a future event: She viewed the prospect of a week alone in the house without much enthusiasm. - prospect /pr6‘spekt/ v [I, Ipr] ∼ (for sth) search for mineral, oil, etc: a licence to prospect in the northern territory; The company are prospecting for gold in that area. - perspective /p6‘spekt1v/ n [C] view, esp. one stretching into the distance: get a perspective of the whole valley. - prospectus /pr4‘spekt6s/ n [C] printed document, leaflet, etc. giving details of and advertising sth: prospectus from several universities. 7. The bound base –pose means ‘place’ or ‘put’. - oppose v [Tn.pr] ∼ sth to/ against sth put forward as a contrast or opposite to sth else: Do not oppose your will against mine. - depose v [Tn] = dethrone = remove a ruler, a king, etc from power. - propose v [Tn] put forward sth for consideration: The committee proposed that new legislation should be drafted. - deposit v [Tn] put money into a bank, esp to earn interest: The cheque was only deposited yesterday, so it hasn’t been cleared yet. 27
- 28. place (sth unwelcome or unpleasant) on sb/sth: impose restriction, limitations, restraints, etc (on trade). 8. The bound base –rod/ rod– means ‘gnaw’. - rodent /‘r6υdnt/ n [C] animal which gnaws things with strong teeth. - erode v [Tn esp passive] (of acids, rain, wind, etc) destroy or wear (sth) away gradually: Metals are eroded by acids. - erosion n [U] process of eroding or being eroded: the erosion of the coastline by the sea. - erosive adj having a tendency to be eroded. 9. The bound base –port/ port– means ‘carry’. - portable adj that can be carried by hand: a portable television set. - deport /d1‘p0:t/ v [Tn, Tn.pr] ∼ sb (from …) legally force (a foreigner, criminal, etc) to leave a country: He was convicted of drug offences and deported. - transport v [Tn, Tn.pr] ∼ sb/sth (from …) (to …) carry or take sth/sb from one place to another in a vehicle: transport goods by lorry. - portage n [U] (cost of) carrying goods. 10. The bound base –rupt/ rupt– means ‘break’. - rupture n - erupt v [I] (of a volcano) break out: This volcano has erupted twice this year. - abrupt adj (of speech) not smooth, disconnected, disjoined: short and abrupt sentences. - corrupt adj 28 [U, C] (fml) (instance of) breaking apart: the rupture of a blood-vessel, seed-pod, membrane. (of languages, texts, etc) containing errors or changes: a corrupt manuscript.
- 29. break the continuity of sth temporarily: Trade between the two countries was interrupted by the war. 11. The bound base ann– means ‘year’. - annual adj yearly. - annuity /6‘nju:6t1/ n [C] fixed sum of money paid to sb yearly. - annuitant /6‘nju:6t6nt/ n [C] person who receives an annuity. - anniversary n [C] yearly return of the date of an event; celebration of this. 12. The bound base –gamy means ‘marriage’. - bigamy / ‘b1g6m1/ n [U] custom of having two wives or husbands living. - polygamy /p6‘l1g6m1/ n [U] custom of having more than one wife at the same time. EXERCISE 7: Which of the following items is an English word? Support your choice? (1) ationizealnationde (ation–ize–al–nation–de) (2) alizedeationnation (al–ize–de–ation–nation) (3) denationalization (de–nation–al–ize–ation) ANSWER: Among the three items mentioned above, only (3) is an English word. The order of morphemes in English words is: derivational prefix − base − derivational suffix(es) − inflectional suffix Analysing (3) we find out that the following morphemes are in correct order: ‘de−’ is a prefix meaning ‘doing the opposite of’ ‘nation’ is the free base, which is a noun. ‘−al’ is a derivational class-changing adjective-forming suffix ‘−ize’ is a derivational class-changing verb-forming suffix ‘−ation’ is a derivational class-changing noun-forming suffix This morphemic analysis proves that (3) is an English word. The items numbered (1) and (2) are not because their constituents are not arranged in the above-mentioned order. The arrangements of the constituents in (1) and (2) 29
- 30. rules concerning the internal stability and uninterruptability of English words. In other words, it is impossible to divide English words by the insertion of any other elements. Also, English word formation does not enable us to move a certain morpheme in a word to any position we like. In conclusion, our conscious knowledge of the English language allows us to identify (3), not (1) or (2), as an English word. B. THE EXERCISES OF ALLOMORPHS EXERCISE 8: Explain why ‘a’ and ‘an’ are two allomorphs of the same morpheme. ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ EXERCISE 9: Identify the allomorphs of the inflectional verb past simple morpheme {−D1} in the verb ‘be’. How are they conditioned? ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ EXERCISE 10: What are homophones? Give examples. Do they belong to the same morpheme? ANSWER: Homophones are commonly used to refer to words which sound alike but have different meanings. • Homophones may have different written forms: the verb mete (in mete sth out meaning ‘give or administer punishment, rewards, etc.’), the verb meet (‘come face to face with sb’) and the noun meat (‘flesh of animals, esp. mammals, used as food’) are all pronounced as /mi:t/; the second person pronoun you and the noun ewe (‘female sheep’) are both pronounced as /ju:/; etc. Homophones may have the same written form: the adverb too1 (‘more than should be’) and the adverb too2 (‘also’) are both pronounced as /tu:/; the noun 30
- 31. animal with thick fur’), the verb bear1 (‘give birth to’) and the verb bear2 (‘tolerate’) are all pronounced as /be6(r)/; etc. Homophones may also be allomorphs of different morphemes. Compare the allomorph /−z/ of the noun plural inflectional suffix {−S1} like in those frogs (1) with that of the noun possessive inflectional suffix {−S2} like in John’s book (2) and with that of the verb inflectional suffix {−S3} like in It feels good (3). The two above illustrations show that homophones can never belong to the same morpheme. EXERCISE 11: Identify the following homophones and try to look for a few more appropriate examples to illustrate their distinction. (1)a. The inflectional verb past participle morpheme {−D2}: the departed guests, edited manuscripts. (1)b. The derivational class-changing adjective-forming morpheme {−D3}: a very devoted wife; a rather neglected girl; he was even more excited than I (was). (2)a. The inflectional verb present participle morpheme {−ing1}: I saw a house burning; I saw a burning house. (2)b. The derivational class-changing noun-forming morpheme {−ing2}: droppings (n., pl) = excrement of birds or animals; findings (n., pl) = things that are discovered as the result of an (official) inquiry; He attended the meeting; I make my living by teaching. (2)c. The derivational class-changing adjective-forming morpheme {−ing3}: a very exciting film; you can’t expect a more charming companion than he. (3)a. The derivational class-changing adverb-forming morpheme {−ly1}: complete (adj.) + −ly → completely (adv.); happy (adj.) + −ly → happily (adv.). (3)b. The derivational class-changing adjective-forming morpheme {−ly2}: coward (n.) + −ly → cowardly (adj.); gentleman (n.) + −ly → gentlemanly (adj.). (4)a. The inflectional adjective comparative morpheme {−er1}: tall (positive adj.) + −er → taller (comparative adj.); happy (positive adj.) + −er → happier (comparative adj.). 31
- 32. class-changing noun-forming morpheme {−er2}: read (verb) + −er → reader (noun); teach (verb) + −er → teacher (noun). (4)c. The derivational class-changing verb-forming morpheme {−er3}: chat (noun) + −er → chatter (verb); wit (noun) + −er → witter (verb). NOTES: chat /t∫`t/ n [C, U] friendly informal conversation: I had a long chat with her (about her job); That’s enough chat — get back to work. chatter /‘t∫`t6(r)/ v [I, Ipr, Ip] (away/on) (about sth) talk quickly, continuously or foolishly about unimportant matters: Do stop chattering on about the weather while I’m trying to read. wit /w1t/ n [U] ability to combine words, ideas, etc. so as to produce a clever type of humor: I admire her for her wit; [C] person who has or is famous for this, witty person: a well-known wit. [I, Ipr, Ip] (on) (about sth) (infml, usu derog) speak in a lenthy and annoying way about sth unimportant: What are you wittering (on) about? witter /‘w1t6(r)/ v EXERCISE 12: Give the morphemic structure of each of the following words. Identify the allomorph of the inflectional suffix in each word. How are the allomorphs involved conditioned? (morphologically or phonologically?) 1. ox → oxen /‘4ks6n/ = /4ks/ + /−6n/ /‘4ksn/ = /4ks/ + /−n/ /−6n/ or /−n/ is a morphologically conditioned additive allomorph of the inflectional noun plural morpheme {−S1}. 2. brother → brethren /−6n/ 32 /‘bre5r6n/ = /‘br∧5r6 → ‘bre5r−/ +
- 33. = /t~a1ld → /−6n/ ‘t~1ldr−/ + /−6n/ is a morphologically conditioned additive allomorph of the inflectional noun plural morpheme {−S1}. It is added to a stem which has previously undergone some change in form: from /‘br∧56/ to /bre5r−/ or from /t~a1ld/ to /t~1ldr−/. In other words, /−6n/ is added to the allomorph /t~1ldr−/ of the morpheme {child} or the allomorph /bre5r−/ of the morpheme {brother}. 3. deer → deer /d16/ sheep → sheep = /d16/ + / - / /~i:p / = /~i:p/ + / - / /-/ is the morphologically conditioned zero allomorph of the inflectional noun plural morpheme {−S1}. The following group of names of edible animals, game animals, fish and birds also takes the zero allomorph of {−S1}: SWINE, BEAR, ANTELOPE, BASS, PIKE, CARP, PERCH, PICKEREL, QUAIL and GROUSE. 4. man → men goose → geese /men/ = /m`n/ + / ` → e / /gi:s/ = /gu:s/ + /u: → i:/ /` → e/ and /u:→ i:/ are two morphologically conditioned replacive allomorphs of the inflectional noun plural morpheme {−S1}. The following limited group of nouns also takes a replacive allomorph: WOMAN → WOMEN, TOOTH → TEETH, FOOT → FEET, LOUSE → LICE and MOUSE → MICE. 5. wolf → wolves /wυlvz/ = / wυlf → wυlv−/ + /−z/ calf → calves /ka:vz/ = / ka:f → ka:v−/ mouth → mouths /maυ5z/ = /maυθ → maυ5−/ + /−z/ path → paths /pa:5z/ = / pa:θ → pa:5−/ + /−z/ + /−z/ In the above cases, before the phonologically conditioned additive allomorph /−z/ of the inflectional noun plural morpheme {−S1} is added to change a singular noun to a plural noun, that singular noun has previously undergone some change in form: from /wυlf/ to /wυlv−/, from /ka:f/ to /ka:v−/, from /maυθ/ to /maυ5−/ or from /pa:θ/ to /pa:5−/. In other words, /−z/ is added to the second allomorph of the stem: /wυlv−/, /ka:v−/, /maυ5−/ and /pa:5−/. Some common nouns that may have the same analysis are: WIFE − WIVES, KNIFE− KNIVES, HALF − HALVES, SHELF − SHELVES, 33
- 34. BATH − BATHS, LOAF − LOAVES, SELF − SELVES, OATH − OATHS, etc. 6. house → houses /haυz1z/ = /haυs → haυz−/ + /−1z/ /−Iz/ is a phonologically conditioned additive allomorph of {−S1} which occurs after one of the sibilant consonants /s/, /z/, /~/, /2/, /t~/, or /d2/. 7. hurt → hurt put → put /h3:t/ = /h3:t/ + / - / /pυt/ = /pυt/ + / - / /-/ is the morphologically conditioned zero allomorph of either the inflectional verb past simple morpheme {−D1} or the inflectional verb past participle morpheme {−D2}. 8. drink → drunk /dr∧7k/ = /dr17k / + /1 → ∧/ /1 → ∧/ is a morphologically conditioned replactive allomorph of the inflectional verb past participle morpheme {−D2}. 9. break → broken /‘br6υk6n/ = /bre1k → br6υk−/ + /−6n/ /‘br6υkn/ = /bre1k → br6υk−/ + /−n/ speak → spoken /‘sp6υk6n/ = /spi:k → sp6υk−/ + /−6n/ /‘sp6υkn/ = /spi:k → sp6υk−/ + /−n/ /−6n/ or /−n/ is a morphologically conditioned additive allomorph of the inflectional verb past participle morpheme {−D2}. It is added to a stem which has previously undergone some change in form from /bre1k/ to /br6υk−/ or from /spi:k/ to /sp6υk−/. 10. go → went /went/ = /g6υ/ + the morphologically conditioned suppletive allomorph of the inflectional verb past tense morpheme {−D1}. 11. wash → washes /‘w4~1z/ = /w4~/ + /−1z/ switch → switches /‘sw1t~1z/ = /sw1t~/ + /−1z/ /−1z/ is a phonologically conditioned additive allomorph of either the inflectional noun plural morpheme {−S1} or the inflectional verb present tense third person singular morpheme {−S3}. The allomorph /−1z/ only occurs after one of the sibilant consonants /s/, /z/, /~/, /2/, /t~/ or /d2/. 12. see → saw /s0:/ = /si:/ + /i: → 0:/ begin → began /b6‘9`n/ = /b6‘91n/ + /1 → `/ bite → bit give → gave 34 /b1t/ /9e1v/ = /ba1t/ + /a1 → 1/ = /91v/ + /1 → e1/
- 35. → `/, /a1 → 1/ and /1 → e1/ are morphologically conditioned replacive allomorphs of the inflectional verb past tense morpheme {−D1}. EXERCISE 13: Write the base morpheme and its allomorphs in each case. How are the allomorphs conditioned? 1. house /haυs/, houses /haυz−/ + /−1z/ The base morpheme {house} has two morphologically conditioned allomorphs, /haυs/ and /haυz−/, according to context: /haυs/ occurs when there is no other morpheme occurring; /haυz−/ occurs in combination with /−1z/, a phonologically conditioned additive allomorph of the inflectional noun plural morpheme {−S1}. 2. child /t~a1ld/, children /‘t~1ldr−/ + /−6n/ The base morpheme {child} has two morphologically conditioned allomorphs, /t~a1ld/ and /‘t~1ldr−/, according to context: /t~a1ld/ occurs when there is no other morpheme occurring; /‘t~1ldr−/ occurs in combination with /−6n/, a morphologically conditioned additive allomorph of {−S1}. 3. strong /str47/, strength /stre7−/ + /−θ/ The base morpheme {strong} has two morphologically conditioned allomorphs, /str47/ and /stre7−/, according to context: /str47/ occurs when there is no other morpheme occurring; /stre7−/ occurs in combination with −th /−θ/, a derivational class-changing noun-forming suffix. wide /wa1d/ width /w1t−/ + /−θ/ broad /br4:d/ breadth /bret−/ + /−θ/ able /‘e1bl/ ability /6‘b1l−/ + /−6t1/ divine /d6‘va1n/ divinity /d6‘v1n−/ + /−6t1/ supreme /s6‘pri:m/ supremacy /s6‘prem6−/ + /−s1/ 4. atom /‘`t6m/, atomic /6‘t4m−/ + /−1k/ The base morpheme {atom} has two morphologically conditioned allomorphs, /‘`t6m/ and /6‘t4m−/, according to context: /‘`t∂m/ occurs when there is no other morpheme occurring; /6‘t4m−/ occurs in combination with −ic /−1k/, a derivational class-changing adjective-forming suffix. feast /fi:st/ festive /fest−/ + /−1v/ destroy /d6‘str01/ destructive /d6‘str∧kt −/ + /−1v/ offend /6‘fend/ offensive /6‘fens−/ + /−1v/ repeat /r6‘pi:t/ repetitive /r6‘pet6t−/ + /−1v/ 35
- 36. + /−1k/ energy /‘en6d21/ energetic /,en6‘d2et−/ + /−1k/ 5. do /du:/, does /d∧−/ + /−z/ The base morpheme {do} has two morphologically conditioned allomorphs, /du:/ and /d∧−/, according to context: /du:/ occurs when there is no other morpheme occurring; /d∧−/ occurs in combination with /−z/, a phonologically conditioned additive allomorph of the inflectional verb present tense third person singular morpheme {−S3}. 6. have /h`v/, has /h`−/ + /−z/ The base morpheme {have} has two morphologically conditioned allomorphs, /h`v/ and /h`−/, according to context: /h`v/ occurs when there is no other morpheme occurring; /h`−/ occurs in combination with /−z/, a phonologically conditioned additive allomorph of the inflectional verb present tense third person singular morpheme {−S3}. 7. fame /‘fe1m/ infamous /‘1nf6m6s/ famous /‘fe1m/ + /−6s/ infamy /‘1nf6m1/ The base morpheme {fame} has two phonologically conditioned allomorphs, /feIm/ and /−f6m/, according to context: /feIm/ occurs in primarily stressed syllables; /−f6m−/ occurs in unstressed syllables. EXTRA READING The Allomorphs of the Inflectional Noun Plural Morpheme {−S1} 1. Three phonologically conditioned (= regular) additive allomorphs: 1.1. /−s/ occurs after the voiceless consonants /p/, /t/, /k/, /f/ and /θ/: cat → cats /k`ts/ = /k`t/ + /−s/ 1.2. /−1z/ occurs after the sibilant consonants /s/, /z/, /~/, /2/, /t~/ and /d2/: = /kla:s/ + /−1z/ class → classes /‘kla:s1z/ 1.3. /−z/ occurs after all vowels, which are always voiced, and other voiced consonants except /z/, /2/, and /d2/: chair → chairs /t~e6z/ = /t~e6/ + /−z/ arm → arms /a:mz/ = /a:m/ + /−z/ 36
- 37. conditioned (= regular) additive allomorph /−z/ is added to a stem that has previously undergone some change in form (with consonant change): calf → calves /ka:vz / = /ka:f/ + /f → v/ + /−z/ = /ba:θ/ + /θ → 5/ + /−z/ bath → baths /ba:5z/ 3. The morphologically conditioned (= irregular) zero allomorph /-/: sheep → sheep /~i:p/ = /~i:p/ + / - / 4. The morphologically conditioned (= irregular) replacive allomorph (with vowel change): foot → feet /fi:t/ = /fυt/ + /υ → i:/ tooth → teeth /ti:θ/ = /tu:θ/ + /u: → i:/ man → men /men/ = /m`n/ + /` → e/ woman → women /‘w1m1n/ = /‘wυm6n/ + /υ → 1/ and /6 → 1/ 5. The morphologically conditioned (= irregular) additive allomorph: 5.1. /−6n/ is simply added to the stem: ox → oxen /‘4ks6n/ = /4ks/ + /−6n/ 5.2. /−6n/ is added to the stem that has previously undergone some change in form: child → children /‘t~1ldr6n/ = /t~a1ld → ‘t~1ldr−/ + /−6n/ brother → brethren /‘bre5r6n/ = /‘br∧5r6 → ‘bre5r−/ + /−6n/ The Allomorphs of the Inflectional Verb Past Simple Morpheme {−D1} 1. Three phonologically conditioned (= regular) additive allomorphs: 1.1. /−1d/ occurs after the alveolar oral stop /t/ or /d/: want → wanted /‘w4nt1d/ = / w4nt/ + /−1d/ need → needed /‘ni:d1d/ = /ni:d/ + /−1d/ 1.2. /−t/ occurs after other voiceless sounds: = /f1ks/ + /−t/ fix → fixed /f1kst/ wash → washed /‘w4~t/ = /w4~/ + /−t/ switch → switched /‘sw1t~t/ = /sw1t~/ + /−t/ 1.3. /−d/ occurs after other voiced sounds: pull → pulled /pυld/ = /pυl/ + /−d/ change → changed /t~e1nd2d/ = /t~e1nd2/ + /−d/ = /fa16/ + /−d/ fire → fired /fa16d/ 37
- 38. /~6υd/ = /~6υ/+ /−d/ 2. The morphologically conditioned (= irregular) zero allomorph /-/: hurt → hurt /h3:t/ = /h3:t/ + /-/ put → put /pυt/ = /pυt/ + /-/ beat → beat /bi:t/ = /bi:t/ + /-/ 3. The morphologically conditioned (= irregular) additive allomorph: dwell → dwelt /dwelt/ = /dwel/ + /−t/ burn → burnt /b3:nt/ = /b3:nt/ + /−t/ 4. The morphologically conditioned (= irregular) replacive allomorph 4.1. with vowel change: tear → tore /t0:/ = /te6/ + /e6 → 0:/ find → found /faυnd/ = /fa1nd/ + /a1 → aυ/ run → ran /r`n/ = /r∧n/ + /∧ → `/ ring → rang /r`7/ = /r17/ + /1 → `/ choose → chose /t~6υz/ = /t~u:z/ + /u: → 6υ/ 4.2. with consonant change: send → sent /sent/ = /send/ + /d → t/ build → built /bju:lt/ = /bju:ld/ + /d → t/ 4.3. with both vowel and consonant change: catch → caught /k0:t/ = /k`t~/ + /` → 0:/ and /t~ → t/ bring → brought /br0:t/ = /br17/ + /1 → 0:/ and /7 → t/ seek → sought /s0:t/ = /si:k/ + /i: → 0:/ and /k → t/ 5. The morphologically conditioned (= irregular) replacive allomorph + the morphologically conditioned (= irregular) additive allomorph 5.1. with vowel change: tell → told /t6υld/ = /tel/ + /e → 6υ/ + /−d/ do → did /d1d/ = /du:/ + /u: → 1/ + /−d/ hear → heard /h3:d/ = /h16/ + /16 → 3:/ + /−d/ buy → bought /b0:t/ = /ba1/ + /a1 → 0:/ + /−t/ feel → felt /felt/ = /fi:l/ + /i: → e/ + /−t/ 5.2. with both vowel and consonant change: leave → left /left/ = /li:v/ + /i: → e/ and /v → f/ + /−t/ 6. The morphologically conditioned (= irregular) suppletive allomorph: go /96υ/ + the suppletive allomorph of {−D1} = went /went/ be /bi:/ + the suppletive allomorph of {−D1} = was /w4z/ or were /w3:/ The Allomorphs of the Inflectional Verb Past Participle Morpheme {−D2} 38
- 39. conditioned (= regular) additive allomorphs: /−1d/, /−t/ and /−d/. (See ‘three phonologically conditioned additive allomorphs of {−D1}’.) 2. The morphologically conditioned (= irregular) zero allomorph / - /: hurt → hurt /h3:t/ = /h3:t/ + / - / put → put /pυt/ = /pυt/ + / - / run → run /r∧n/ = /r∧n/ + / - / 3. The morphologically conditioned (= irregular) additive allomorph: dwell → dwelt /dwelt/ = /dwel/ + /−t/ be → been /bi:n/ = /bi:/ + /−n/ show → shown /~6υn/ = /~6υ/ + /−n/ beat → beaten /bi:tn/ = /bi:t/ + /−n/ 4. The morphologically conditioned (= irregular) replacive allomorph: 4.1. with vowel change: find → found /faυnd/ = /fa1nd/ + /a1 → aυ/ read → read /red/ = /ri:d/ + /i: → e/ ring → rung /r∧7/ = /r17/ + /1 → ∧/ 4.2. with consonant change: send → sent /sent/ build → built /bju:lt/ = /send/ + /d → t/ = /bju:ld/ + /d → t/ 4.3. with both vowel and consonant change: catch → caught /k0:t/ = /k`t~/ + /` → 0:/ and /t~ → t/ bring → brought /br0:t/ = /br17/ + /1 → 0:/ and /7 → t/ seek → sought /s0:t/ = /si:k/ + /i: → 0:/ and /k → t/ 5. The morphologically conditioned (= irregular) replacive allomorph + the morphologically conditioned (= irregular) additive allomorph: 5.1. with vowel change: tell → told /t6υld/ hear → heard /h3:d/ buy → bought /b0:t/ feel → felt /felt/ do → done /d∧n/ tear → torn /t0:n/ go → gone /94n/ = = = = = = = /tel/ + /e → 6υ/ + /−d/ /h16/ + /16 → 3:/ + /−d/ /ba1/ + /a1 → 0:/ + /−t/ /fi:l/ + /i: → e/ + /−t/ /du:/ + /u: → ∧/ + /−n/ /te6/ + /e6 → 0:/ + /−n/ /96υ/ + /6υ → 4/ + /−n/ 39
- 40. /‘t~6υzn/ = /t~u:z/ + /u: → 6υ/ + /−n/ 5.2. with both vowel and consonant change: leave → left /left/ = /li:v/ + /i: → e/ and /v → f/ + /−t/ NOTES: The −ed /−t/ in blessed /blest/ and the −ed /−d/ in burned /b3:nd/ are two phonologically conditioned additive allomorph of either {−D1} or{−D2}. bless → blessed /blest/ → blessed /blest/ burn → burned /b3:nd/ → burned /b3:nd/ The −t /−t/ in blest /blest/ and in burnt /b3:nt/ represents a morphologically conditioned additive allomorph of either {−D1} or{−D2}. bless → → burn → → 40 blest /blest/ blest /blest/ burnt /b3:nt/ burnt /b3:nt/
- 41. INFLECTION 1. DERIVATION 1.1. DEFINITION: Derivation is ‘the formation of new words by adding affixes to other words or morphemes. For example, the noun insanity is derived from the adjective sane by addition of the negative prefix in− and the nounforming suffix −ity’ [Richards, Platt & Weber, 1987: 77]. 1.2. TYPES OF DERIVATIONAL AFFIXES: There are two subgroups: • Class-changing derivational affixes change the word class, (also called the grammatical category or the part of speech) of the words to which they are attached. Thus, when a verb is conjoined with the suffix −able, the result is an adjective, as in desire + −able or adore + −able. A few other examples are: noun to adjective boy + −ish virtu(e) + −ous Elizabeth + −an verb to noun adjective to adverb noun to verb acquit(t) + −al clear + −ance accus(e) + −ation exact + −ly quiet + −ly mortal + −ise vaccin(e) + −ate beauty + −fy • Class-maintaining derivational affixes do not change the word class of the words to which they are attached. Many prefixes fall into this category: a− + mortal auto− + biography ex− + wife super− + human mono− re− semi− sub− + theism + print + annual + minimal There are also suffixes of this type: vicar + −age Americ(a) + −an New Jersey + −ite pun + −ster 1.3. MORPHOLOGICAL RULES: New words may enter the dictionary in this fashion, created by the application of morphological rules. A few of them are: (1) VERB + −able = ‘able to be VERB-ed’ ACCEPT + −able = ‘able to be ACCEPTed’ 41
- 42. adjective-forming suffix {−able} has three allomorphs: (i) /−6bl/, which occurs at the end of English words: visible /‘v1z6bl/, desirable /d6‘za16r6bl /; (ii) /−6b/, which occurs before the adverb-forming suffix {−ly1}: visibly /‘v1z6bl1/, desirably /d6‘za16r6bl1/; (iii) /−6‘b1l/, which occurs before the noun-forming suffix {−ity}: visibility /,v1z6‘b1l 6t1/, desirability /d6,za16r6‘b1l 6t1/. (2) un− + ADJECTIVE = ‘not + ADJECTIVE’ = ‘not + TRUE’ un− + TRUE Among the words which have been derived from this morphological rule are unjust, unkind, unfair, unfit, unavoidable, unrelieved, unscientific, unshrinking, unskilled, etc. = ‘do the opposite of + VERB+ −ING’ = ‘reverse + VERB+ −ING’ un− + LOCK = ‘do the opposite of + LOCKING’ = ‘reverse + LOCKING’ (3) un− + VERB Among the words which have been derived from the this morphological rule are unnerve, unlock, untie, undo, untread, unzip, unfasten, undress, uncurl, unfold, etc. NOTES: Added to a verb base, the prefix ‘un−’ meaning ‘reverse’ or ‘do the opposite of’ is not too difficult to be identified: 1. nerve /n3:v/ v unnerve /,∧n‘n3:v/ v 42 [Tn.pr, Cn.t] ∼ sb/oneself for sth give sb/ oneself the courage, strength, selfcontrol, confidence, or determination to do sth: Her support nerve her for the fight. I nerved myself to face my accusers. [Tn] cause sb to lose courage, strength, self-control, confidence, or determination: His encounter with the guard dog had completely unnerved him.
- 43. v unlock /,∧n‘l4k/ v 3. tie /ta1/ v untie /,∧n‘ta1/ v [Tn] fasten (a gate, door, lid, etc.) with a lock: Be sure to lock your bicycle. [Tn] unfasten the lock (of a door, gate, lid, etc.) using a key: He failed to unlock the gate. [Tn] fasten or bind (sth) with rope, string, etc.: Shall I tie the parcel or use sticky tape? [Tn] unfasten knots, buttons, a parcel, an envelope, etc.: Could you untie this apron for me? 4. undo /,∧n‘du:/ v [Tn] 1. reverse doing; untie or unfasten knots, buttons, etc.: I can’t undo my shoelaces; 2. reverse doing; destroy the effect of sth: He undid most of the good work of his predecessor. 5. tread /tri:d/ v [I] set one’s foot down; walk or step: Explorers were going where no man had trod before. untread /,∧n‘tri:d/ v [I] go back through in the same steps: She trod and untrod lightly so as not to wake the baby. Also added to a verb base, the prefix ‘un−’ may have another meaning: ‘remove from’ or ‘deprive of’: 1. earth /3:8/ sth up unearth /,∧n‘3:8/ v 2. mask /ma:sk/ v unmask /,∧n‘ma:sk/ v [phr v] cover sth (the roots of a plant, etc.) with earth: He earthed up the celery. [Tn, Tn.pr] ∼ sth (from sth) dig up, uncover sth from the ground by digging: The dog has unearthed some bones. [Tn] cover the face (of sb) with a mask; (fig.) conceal sth: The thief masked his face with a stocking. She masked her fear by a show of confidence. [Tn] remove a mask from (sb); (fig.) reveal the true character of (sb/sth): Who will unmask his plot? 43
- 44. v unload /,∧n‘l6υd/ v 4. plug /pl∧9/ phr v unplug /,∧n‘pl∧9/ v 5. unfrock /,∧n‘fr4k/ v [Tn] put a load in or on sth: They loaded bricks onto the lorry. [Tn] remove a load from sth: Dockers started unloading the ship. [Tn] sth in connect (sth) to the electricity supply with a plug: Plug in the radio, please. The recorder wasn’t plugged in. [Tn] disconnect (an electrical appliance) by removing its plug from the socket: Please unplug the TV before you go to bed. [Tn esp. passive] deprive (a cleric) of ecclesiastic rank, dismiss (a priest guilty of bad conduct) from the priesthood: The vicar of the church has been unfrocked. (Notice that ‘frock’ as a verb does not really exist in English.) Unfortunately, it is not always easy to identify the meaning of the prefix ‘un−’: if the suffix ‘−en’ in ‘unloosen’ means ‘make’, then what does the prefix ‘un−’ mean? Compare: Can you loosen the lid of the jar? Can you unloose the rope around the victim’s waist? Can you unloosen his collar? loosen /‘lu:sn/ v 1. [I] become loose or looser: This knot keeps loosening; 2. [Tn] make (sth) loose or looser: medicine to loosen a cough. unloose /,∧n‘lu:s/ v [Tn] make (sth) loose: After the huge meal, he unloosed his belt and go to sleep. unloosen /,∧n‘lu:sn/ v [Tn] make (sth) loose: After the huge meal, he unloosened his belt and go to sleep. This phenomenon can be used to support Fromkin‘s and Rodman‘s following statement [1993: 50-51]: ‘It is true, however, that one cannot always know the meaning of the words derived from free and derivational morphemes from the morphemes themselves … Therefore, although the words in a language are not 44
- 45. sound-meaning units, they (plus the morphemes) must be listed in our dictionaries. The morphological rules also are in the grammar, revealing the relation between words and providing the means for forming new words.’ 2. INFLECTION 2.1. DEFINITION: Inflection is ‘the process of adding an affix to a word or changing it in some other way according to the rules of the grammar of a language. For example, English verbs are inflected for 3rd-person singular: I work, he works and for past tense: I worked. Most nouns may be inflected for plural: horse – horses, flower – flowers, man – men’ [Richards, Platt & Weber, 1987: 77]. 2.2. VARIOUS KINDS OF INFLECTION 2.2.1. NOUN INFLECTION Almost all English nouns have two forms: the plain form (also called the unmarked form) used in the constructions like ‘a book’ or ‘the book’ and the inflected form (also called the marked form) which is formed by adding inflectional suffixes to the plain form. The plain form and its three inflected forms together make up a four-form inflectional noun paradigm, which is a set of relative forms of a noun. Not all nouns have three inflected forms: one plain form (= the stem) mother (singular noun) three inflected forms (= the stem + inflectional suffixes) mothers (plural noun) mother ‘s (singular-possessive noun) mothers’ (plural-possessive noun) 2.2.2. VERB INFLECTION The inflections of a verb are more complicated than those of a noun. The paradigm of an irregular verb has four inflected forms: breaks, breaking, broke, and broken. Although the past simple and the past participle inflected forms of a regular verb are just the same, they carry quite different meanings. Therefore, it is much more convenient to assign all English verbs to a fiveform inflectional paradigm. one plain form (= the stem) work four inflected forms (= the stem + inflectional suffixes) works, working, worked, worked 45
- 46. broken 2.2.3. ADJECTIVE INFLECTION and ADVERB INFLECTION There is a three-form inflectional paradigm for adjectives of one or two syllables and for monosyllabic adverbs though it does not apply to all members of either the adjective or the adverb class. Most one-syllable adjectives and adverbs and many two-syllable adjectives have a comparative form with an ‘−er’ inflection and a superlative form with an ‘−est’ inflection. one plain form two inflected forms (= the stem) (= the stem + inflectional suffixes) POSITIVE shorter shortest big bigger biggest happy happier happiest pure ADVERBS SUPERLATIVE short ADJECTIVES COMPARATIVE purer purest fast faster fastest hard harder hardest 3. HOW TO DISTINGUISH DERIVATION FROM INFLECTION 3.1. DERIVATION 3.1.1. Derivation can be observed in the following formula: A BASE (also called A ROOT) + DERIVATIONAL AFFIXES → NEW DERIVED WORDS 3.1.2. DERIVATIONAL AFFIXES serve to supply the base with ‘components of lexical and lexico-grammatical meanings, thus form different words’ [Arnold, 1986: 87]. Adding derivational affixes to English base morphemes (which are of various grammatical categories/ word classes/ parts of speech), we have various DERIVATIONAL PARADIGMS: mother, motherhood, motherly, motherli ness, motherless and motherlike form a derivational paradigm; break, breakable, unbreakable, breakabil ity, unbreak abil ity, breakage and breaker form another derivational paradigm; pure, purely, purist, purism, purify, puri fic ation, pureness (= purity), impure, and impurity form still another derivational paradigm. 46
- 47. (also called THE ROOT) of a derivational paradigm is ‘the ultimate constituent element which remains after the removal of all functional and derivational affixes and does not admit any further analysis’ [Arnold, 1986: 78]. Thus, HEARTen, HEARTen ed, disHEARTen, disHEARTen ed, HEARTy, HEARTi ly, HEARTi ness HEARTless, HEARTless ly, and HEARTless ness, all share the same base: HEART. 3.1.4. A DERIVATIONAL PARADIGM is ‘a set of related words composed of the same base morpheme and all the derivational affixes that can go with this base’ [Stageberg, 1965: 97]. 3.2. INFLECTION 3.2.1. Inflection can be observed in the following formula: A STEM + INFLECTIONAL SUFFIXES → INFLECTED FORMS OF ONE AND THE SAME WORD 3.2.2. INFLECTIONAL (also called GRAMMATICAL or FUNCTIONAL) SUFFIXES ‘serve to convey grammatical meaning. They build different forms of one and the same word’ [Arnold, 1986: 87]. Adding inflectional suffixes to English stems (which are only nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs), we have INLECTIONAL PARADIGMS: mother, mothers, mother’s and mothers’ form an inflectional noun paradigm; break, breaking, breaks, broke and broken form an inflectional verb paradigm; long, longer and longest form an inflectional adjective or adverb paradigm. 3.2.3. THE STEM (of an inflectional paradigm) is the part of a word that remains after the removal of all inflectional suffixes. In other words, the stem is that part of a word that is in existence before any inflectional suffixes. The stem of the inflectional adjective paradigm HEARTy–HEARTier–(the) HEARTiest is HEARTy. It is a free stem, but it consists of A BASE and an affix; it is not simple but derived. Thus, a stem containing one or more affixes is ‘a derived stem’ [Arnold, 1986: 78]. 3.2.4. AN INFLECTIONAL PARADIGM is a set of related words composed of the same stem and all the inflectional suffixes that can go with this stem. EXERICES EXERCISE 1: Give as many words with the same bound base as you can, using the given prefixes and bound bases. 47
- 48. (con−): de−: dis− (dif−): ex−: in− (im−): per−: pre−: inter−: pro−: re−: sub− (sup−): trans−: Bound bases to, toward with, together, jointly, in from, down, away apart from, out from, out of in, into, within, toward, on through, thoroughly before, in advance between forward, before, forth, for back, again under across, beyond, through 1. −tain 2. −ceive −cept −ceit 3. −fer 4. −clude 5. −port hold take carry, bear shut, close carry ANSWER: 1. Words with the bound base –tain meaning ‘hold’: contain, containment, container, containable detain, detainer, detainee, detainment, detainingly entertain, entertainment, entertainer pertain retain, retainer 2. Words with the bound base –ceive, –cept, –ceit meaning ‘take’: accept, acceptance, acceptable, acceptability, acceptableness, accepter conceive, conceivable, conception, conceit, conceiver deceive, deceivable, deception, deceiver, deceptive, perceive, perceivable, perception, perceiver, perceptive, receive, receivable, reception, receiver, receptive 3. Words with the bound base –fer meaning ‘carry’ or ‘bear’: confer, conferee, conferment, conferable, conference, conferal, conferer defer, deference, deferent, deferential, deferentially, defer, deferment, deferable infer, inferable, inferer, inference, inferential, inferentially prefer, preferer, preferable, preferability, preferably, preference, preferential, preferentially, preferment refer, referable, referer, referee, reference, referendum, referent, referential, referentially, referal transfer, transferable, transfererer, transfereree, transferase, transference, transferential, transferentially, transferal 48
- 49. the bound base –clude meaning ‘shut’ or ‘close’: conclude, concluder exclude, excludable, excluder, excludability include, includable preclude 5. Words with the bound base –port meaning ‘carry’: comport, comportment deport, deportable, deportation, deportee, deportment disport export, exportable, exportation, exporter import, importable, importation, importer, important, importance, importancy, importantly report, reportable, reportage, reporter support, supportable, supportableness, supportably, supporter, supportive transport, transportable, transportability, transporter, transportation, transportational EXERCISE 2: Identify all the possible the suffixes in each of the given words. Complete the table given below. 1 organists 2 personalities 3 flirtatiously 4 atomizers 5 contradictorily 6 trusteeship 7 greasier 8 countrified 9 friendliest 3 suffixes −ation, −ous, −ly 10 responsibilities 49
- 50. the meaning of the prefix in each of the given words and then give as many words with the same prefix as you can. Complete the table given below. 1 2 antidote circumvent co-pilot 3 collapse compact convene anti− = ‘against’ circum− = ‘around’ circum-navigate, circumference, circumlocution, circumspect co−, col−, co-curriculum, co-operate, coordinate com−, con−, collide, collision, collect cor− = ‘with’ comply consonant, convoke corrode 4 anti-aircraft, antibody, antipersonnel, antihero correlate contradict de− = deactivate, decentralize, dehumanize, deform, denationalize, decolonize, decode 5 devitalized 6 delouse de− = ‘remove’ dehorn, defrost, deice, deflower, deforest 7 devalue de− = ‘reduce’: degrade, debase, decline, decrease 8 disunion 9 disagreeable ‘do the opposite’ insecure 10 imperfect illegible irreverent inspire 11 50 imbibe in−, im− = ‘in’ or ‘on’ inspiration, inspirational, inspiring, inspired, inspect, install, inscribe imbue, impale, impalpable, impalement
- 51. oppressed, oppression, oppressive(ly), pre-war 16 ob−, op− = ‘against’ or ‘opposite’ obstruction, obstructive, obstrude, obstrusion, obstrusive(ly), obstinate obstrusiveness, obstacle, object(ion), undress retro− = ‘backward’ retroflex, retrograde, retrogress, retro-rocket, retrospect NOTES: 1. The prefix anti– means ‘against’. - antidote /‘`nt1d6υt/ n [C] substance that acts against the effect of poison: an antidote against 51
- 52. poisoning, malaria, etc. - anti-aircraft adj designed to destroy enemy aircrafts: anti-aircraft guns. - anti-personnel adj designed to kill or injure people: antipersonnel explosives. - anti-hero n [C] central character in a story or drama who lacks the qualities usually associated with a hero, such as courage and dignity. - antibody n [C] protein formed in the blood in response to harmful bacteria, etc. which it then attacks and destroys. 2. The prefix circum– means ‘around’. - circumvent /s6k∧m‘vent/ v [Tn] find a way of overcoming or avoiding sth: circumvent a law, rule, problem, difficulty, etc. - ,circum‘navigate v [Tn] sail around (esp. the world): Magellan was the first person to circumnavigate the globe. - circumference/s6‘k∧mf6r6ns/ n [C] line that marks out a circle or other curved figures. - circumlocution n [U, C] (instance of the) use of many words to say sth that could be said in a few words. - circumspect adj considering everything carefully before action; cautious: - circumspection n [N] caution: circumspect. proceeding with great 3. The prefixes co–, col–, com–, con– and cor– all mean ‘with’, ‘together’ or ‘jointly’. - co-pilot n - co-operate v 52 [C] assistant pilot in an aircraft. [I, Ipr] ∼(with sb) work or act together with another or others:
- 53. his friend in raising money. - co-ordinate v [Tn, Tn.pr] ∼ sth (with sth) cause (different parts, limbs, etc.) to function together efficiently: We must coordinate our efforts to help flood victims. - collaborate v [I, Ipr] ∼ (with sb) work together (with sb), esp. to create or produce sth: She collaborated with her sister on a biography of their father. - collide v [I, Ipr] ∼ (with sb/ sth) strike violently against sth or each other. - collect v [Tn, Tn.p] ∼ sth (up/ together) bring or gather sth together: collect up the empty glasses, collect together one’s belongings. - compact /k6m‘p`kt/ adj closely packed together: a compact disc; v [Tn usu passive] press sth firmly together: the compacted snow on the pavement. - comply v [I, I.pr] ∼ (with sth) do as one is requested or commanded: Rules must be complied with. - convene /k6n‘vi:n/ v [Tn] summon people to come together: convene the members, a committee, etc. - convoke /k6n‘v6υk/ v [Tn] call together, summon a meeting, etc: convoke the Parliament. - consonant n [C] sound that has no voice and thus has to go with a vowel: Vietnamese b /be1/, c /se1/ and d /de1/ vs. English b /bi:/ , c /si/ and d /di:/ - corrode /k6‘r6υd/ v [I,Ip,Tn,Tn.p] ∼ (sth) (away) destroy or be destroyed slowly, esp with chemical action: The metal has corroded away because of rust/ acid. There exists a 53
- 54. has corroded their friendship. - correlate /‘k4r6le1t/ v [I,Ipr,Tn,Tn.pr] ∼(with sth), (A with/ and B) have a mutual relation with sth: We can often correlate age with frequency of illness. 4. The prefix contra– means ‘against’. - contradict v [I, Tn] say sth that conflicts with sth said or written: That’s true, but don’t you dare contradict (him)? The speaker got confused and started contradicting himself. - contravene v [Tn] act/ be contrary to (a law, etc.); break: Her actions contravene the rules. - contraception n [U] preventing of conception. - contraceptive n [C] device conception; adj - contra-indication n or drug for preventing preventing conception: a contraceptive pill, device, drug, etc. [C] (medical) sign that a particular drug may be harmful: The contraindications listed for the pills meant that she could not take them. 5. The prefix de– means ‘do the opposite of’. - vitalize v - devitalize /,di:‘va1tla1z/ v [Tn] take strength and vigour away from sb/sth: a nation devitalized by a sustained war effort. - activate v [Tn] make sth active. - deactivate /,di:‘`kt1veù1t/ v [Tn] make (sth dangerous, e.g. a bomb or a nuclear reactor) harmless or less active by removing its source of power: deactivate the fuse mechanism. - code v 54 [Tn] provide sb/ sth with strength and vigour. [Tn] put or write sth in code.
- 55. v [Tn] find the meaning of sth written in code. - colonize v [Tn] establish a colony (in an area), establish an area as a colony. - decolonize /,di:‘k4l6naù1z/ v [Tn] give independent status to a colony. 6. The prefix de– means ‘remove … from’ or ‘deprive … of’. - delouse /d1‘laυs/ v [Tn] remove the lice from sb/ sth. - dehorn /d1‘h0:n/ v [Tn] remove the horn from an animal. - deflower /,di:‘flaυ6/ v [Tn] deprive a woman of her virginity, usually by sexual intercourse. defrost /,di:‘fr4st/ v [Tn] remove ice or frost from sth. 7. The prefix de– means ‘reduce’. - devalue /,di:‘v`lju:/ v [Tn] reduce the value of a currency in relation to other currencies/ gold. - decline /d1‘kla1n/ v [I] become smaller, weaker, fewer, etc. - decrease /d1‘kri:z/ v [I, Tn] (cause sth to) become smaller, weaker, fewer, etc. - degrade v [Tn] cause sb to be less moral/ deserving of respect: I felt degraded by having to ask for money. - debase v [Tn] lower the quality, status or value of sth: Sport is being debased by commercialism. You debased yourself by telling such lies. 8. The prefix dis– means ‘absence of’, ‘opposite to’ or ‘do the opposite of’. - union n [U] uniting or being united: the Soviet Union. - disunion n [U] separating or being separated. - appear v [I] come into view, become visible. - disappear v [I] no longer be visible. - count v [I] ∼(for sth) be of value or important: Knowledge without common senses counts for little. 55
- 56. regard sth as unimportant: You can discount what Jack said: he’s a dreadful liar. - arm v [Tn] supply or equip oneself/ sb with weapons. - disarm v [Tn] take weapon away from (sb), reduce the size of the armed forces (of a nation). 9. The prefix dis– means ‘not’ or ‘lack of’ - disagreeable adj not agreeable. - dishonest adj not honest. - disadvantage n [C] unfavorable condition, thing that tends to prevent sb from succeeding, making progress. - discomfort n [U] lack of comfort; n [C] thing that cause this. - disapprove v [I, Ipr] consider (sb/sth) bad (= not good), immoral (= not moral), etc: She wants to be an actress, but her parents disapprove (of her intentions.). - disbelieve v [Tn] refuse to believe (sb/sth): I disbelieve every word you say. 10. The prefixes in–, im–, il– and ir– all mean ‘not’. - insecure adj - incompetent adj not showing the necessary skills to do sth successfully. - inefficient adj not producing adequate results. - immoderate adj too extreme or excessive; not moderate. - impolite adj rude; not polite. - illegal adj against the law; not legal. - illiterate adj not able to read or write. - irregular adj not regular in shape, arrangement, etc. - irrespective adj 56 not secure or lack of safety. not taking account of or considering (sth/sb).
- 57. in– and im– both mean ‘in’ or ‘on’. - inspire v [Tn, Tn.pr] ∼ sth (in sb)/ sb (to sth) fill sb with thoughts, feelings, aims, etc: His noble example inspired the rest of us to greater efforts. - inscribe v [Tn, Tn.pr] ∼ A (on/in B), B (with A) write words, names, etc on or in something: inscribe one’s name in a book; inscribe a book with one’s name. - inspect v [Tn] examine (sth) closely: inspect a school, factory, regiment, etc. - install v [Tn, Tn.pr] ∼ sth (in sth) fix equipment, furniture, etc in position for use: install a heating or lighting system in a building. - imbile v [Tn] take in or absorb sth (fig): imbile fresh air, knowledge, etc. - impale v [Tn, Tn.pr] ∼ sb/sth (on sth) pierce sb/ sth with a sharp-pointed subjec: In former times, prisoners’ heads were impaled on pointed stakes. - impose v [Tn, Tn.pr] ∼ sth (on sb/ sth) place (a penalty, tax, etc.) officially (on sb/ sth): impose a further tax on wines. - impress v [Tn, Tn.pr] ∼ sb (with sth) have a favourable effect on sb: The sights of the city never fail to impress foreign tourists. - implant v [Tn, Tn.pr] ∼ sth (in sth) deliberately introduce or fix (ideas, etc.) into a person’s mind: implant religious beliefs in young children. 12. The prefix inter– means ‘between’ or ‘each other’. - intervene v [I] be or come between two points of time: during the years that intervened. 57
- 58. carried on by or existing between two or more nations. - interstate adj between states, esp. interstate highways. - intercede v [I, Ipr] ∼ (with sb) (for/ on behalf of sb) act as an intermediary (between two people, groups, countries, etc that cannot agree), trying to help them settle their differences: We have to intercede with the authorities on behalf of people unfairly imprisoned there. - interact v [I, Ipr] ∼ (with sth) act or have an effect on each other: chemicals that interact to form new compounds. - interchange v [Tn, Tn.pr] ∼ sth (with sb) give sth to and receive sth from each other: We interchanged partners: he danced with mine, and I danced with his. of the USA: 13. The prefix intra– means ‘within’. - intramural adj intended for full-time students living within a college: intramural courses, studies, staff, etc. - intravenous adj within a vein or veins: intravenous injections. - intramuscular adj within a muscle or muscles. - intra-uterine adj within the uterus. - intrastate adj (existing) within one state, esp. of the USA: intrastate highways. 14. The prefixes ob– and op– both mean ‘against’ or ‘opposite (to)’. - obstruct v - obtrude v [I, Tn, Tn.pr] force (oneself, one’s opinions, ideas, etc.) upon sb/ sth, esp. when unwanted: obtrude on sb’s grief. - obstacle n 58 [Tn] be or get in the way of sb/ sth; block a road/ the passage of sth: Tall trees obstructed his view of the road. [C] thing in the way that either stops progress or makes it difficult.
- 59. (expression of a) feeling dislike, disapproval or opposition. - obstinate adj refusing to change one’s opinion or chosen course of action. - oppose v [Tn] express strong disapproval/ disagreement with sb/ sth. - opponent n [C] person who is against another person in a fight, a struggle, a game or an argument. - oppress v [Tn] rule or treat sb with continual injustice or cruelty. of 15. The prefix pre–/pr1–/means ‘before’. - pre-war adj existing or happening (in the period) before a war: in the pre-war period. - pre-natal /,pri:‘ne1tl/ adj of the period before giving birth: prenatal check-ups, exercises, classes, etc. - preconceived /,pri:k6n‘si:vd/ adj formed in advance, not basing on knowledge or experience: preconceived ideas, opinions, etc. - precede v [I, Tn] come or go before (sth) in time, order, rank, etc. - preamble (to sth) n [C, U] opening that explains the purpose of the book, document, lecture, etc. that follows: He launched into his statement without any preamble. - precaution /pr1‘k0:~n/ n [C] thing done in advance to avoid danger, prevent problems, etc.: take an umbrella just as a precaution - precautionary adj done as a precaution: precautionary measures. 16. The prefix post– means ‘after’. - post-war adj existing or happening (in the period) after a war: in the post-war period. - post-mortem /,p6υst‘m0:t6m/ adj made or occurring after death: a postmortem examination. 59
- 60. (than sth) in time or in a series. - post-date v [Tn] put a date (on a document, etc.) that is later than the actual date. - postgraduate adj done after the first degree; n - postscript (abbr PS) n [C] person doing postgraduate studies. [C] extra message added at the end of a letter after the signature 17. The prefix pro– /pr6–/means ‘forward’. - proceed v [I] go to a further or next stage. - progress v [I] go or move forward. - project v [Tn.pr] ∼sth (into sth) send or throw sth outward or forward. - propose v [Tn] offer or put forward (sth) for consideration; suggest. - proposal n [U] action of suggesting or putting forward; [C] thing that is suggested. - prolapse v [I] (of an organ in the body, esp. the bowel or uterus) slip forward or down so that it is out of place. - prologue n [C] introductory part of a poem or play. - prospect n [C] picture in the mind or imagination, esp. of a future event. 18. The prefix retro– means ‘backward’. - retroactive adj - retrogress v [I] go or move backward. - retrorocket n [C] rocket engine providing power in the opposite direction to the path of flight. - retroflex n [C] sound made by bending the tip of the tongue upward and backward. - retrograde adj going backward, getting worse. - retrospect n 60 affective from a past date. [U] looking back on a past event or situation.
- 61. semi– means ‘half’ or ‘partly’. - semi-detached adj joined to another house by one shared wall. - semi-conscious adj partly conscious. - semicircle n [C] half of a circle or of its circumference. - semi-final n [C] match or round preceding the final, e.g. in football. - semicolon n [C] the punctuation mark (;) between a comma and a full stop. 20. The prefix sub– means ‘under’ or ‘below the normal’ - subway n [C] underground pedestrian tunnel, esp. one beneath a road or railroad; underground railway in a city. - submarine n [C] naval vessel that can operate underwater as well as on the surface. - submerge v [I] go under the surface of a liquid. - subdivide v [I, Ipr, Tn] (cause things to) be divided again into smaller divisions. - subnormal adj below normal, less than normal. - subordinate adj lower in rank or position. - substandard adj below the usual or required standard. 21. The prefix super– means ‘over’ or ‘beyond the norm’ - superabundant adj very abundant. - superhuman adj exceeding normal human power, size, knowledge, etc. - superior adj better than average. - superficial adj of or on the surface only. - superpower n [C] any of the most powerful nations in the world. - supervise v [I, Tn] watch or keep a check on (sb doing sth or sth being done) to make sure it is done properly. 61
- 62. un– means ‘not’. - unlikely adj not likely, impossible. - unattractive adj not attractive. - untrue adj not true. - unwilling adj not willing. 23. The prefix un– means ‘reverse of’ or ‘do the opposite of’. - undress v [I] take off one’s clothes, (Tn) remove the clothes of (sb/sth). - unfold v [I, Tn] (cause sth to) open or spread out from a folded state. - uncurl v [I,Tn] (cause sth/oneself) become straightened from a curled position. - unlock v [Tn] unfasten the lock of the door, gate, etc. using a key. - untie v [Tn] unfasten or undo (a knot, a button, a parcle, an envelop, etc.). - unfreeze v 1. [I, Tn] (cause sth to) thaw; 2. [Tn] remove official controls on (the economy, etc): unfreeze (i.e. defrost) some chops; unfreeze trade restrictions. EXERCISE 4: Each group contains a base and a few suffixes. Make each into a word. Complete the table given below. 1 −ed, live, −en 2 −ing, −ate, termin− 3 −er, −s, mor, −al, −ize 4 province, −s, −ism, −al 5 −ly, −some, grue 6 −ity, work, −able 7 in, −most, −er 8 marry, −age, −ity, −able 9 −dom, −ster, gang 10 −ly, −tion, −ate, affect 62 livened
- 63. a derivational suffix to each of these words, which already end in a derivational suffix. Complete the table given below. 1 expression + −ism = expressionism 2 formal + 3 organize + 4 reasonable + 5 purist + EXERCISE 6: Add an inflectional suffix to each of these words, which already end in a derivational suffix. Complete the table given below. 1 kindness + −es = kindnesses (n., pl.) meaning ‘kind acts’ 2 beautify + 3 quarterly + 4 popularize + 5 depth + 6 pressure + 7 extinguish + 8 orientate + 9 friendly + 10 noisy + EXERCISE 7: You are given here five bases, or words with their bases italicized. Give all the words in the derivational paradigm. Do not include words with two bases, like ‘manhunt’ or ‘manpower’. Complete the table given below. 1 sin 2 kind 3 live (adj)/la1/ 4 transport 5 audience sinful, sinfulness, sinless, sinlessness, sinner 63
- 64. left-hand column contains ten words. The right-hand column contains thirteen derivational suffixes used to make nouns and having the general meanings of ‘state, condition, quality, or act of’. By combining these suffixes with the words listed, make as many nouns as you can. Fill in the given blanks. Words Derived Words Noun-forming Derivational Suffixes 1. happy ________________________ 1. –hood 8. –ance/ –ence 2. friend ________________________ 2. –acy 9. –th 3. girl ________________________ 3. –ism 10. –ure 4. compose composure, composition 4. –ness 11. –ment 5. shrink ________________________ 5. –age 12. –y 6. discover ________________________ 6. –ity 13. –ship 7. supreme ________________________ 7. –ation/ –ition 8. true truth, truism 9. pagan ________________________ 10. active ________________________ EXERCISE 9: Why is it said that inflectional suffixes are part of the syntax of the English language? ANSWER: Inflectional affixes, which are always suffixes in English, perform grammatical functions. They are representatives of the four grammatical categories in English: noun, verb, adjective and adverb. In English, inflectional suffixes typically indicate the syntactic relations between different words in English sentences: the inflectional suffix –s indicates the agreement between the subject he and the verb works in ‘He works hard’; the inflectional noun possessive morpheme –’s shows the relationship between Tom and another person — his father, in ‘Tom’s father’. Therefore, it is quite true to state that inflectional suffixes are part of the English syntax. To master this subject, we have to learn the rules regulating the ways in which words are arranged to form larger linguistic units such as phrases, clauses and sentences. This phenomenon is not only true in English. It is also common in many other languages in the world. 64
- 65. IN MORPHOLOGY 1. DEFINITION ‘IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENTS are any of the two meaningful parts forming a larger linguistic unit’ [Arnold, 1986: 83]. Let’s consider Bloomfield’s analysis of the word ungentlemanly [1935: 210]. Comparing this word with other words, we recognize the morpheme un– as a negative prefix because we have often come across words built on the pattern un– + adjective base: uncertain, unconscious, uneasy, unfortunate, unmistakable, unnatural, unearthly, unsightly, untimely, unwomanly, etc. Thus, at the first cut we obtain the two following immediate constituents: un– and gentlemanly: un– gentlemanly Continuing our analysis, we see that there are many adjectives following the pattern noun base + –ly, such as womanly, masterly, scholarly, soldierly, manly, etc. with the same semantic relationship of ‘having the quality of the person denoted by the base’. Thus, at the second cut we obtain the two following immediate constituents: gentleman and –ly: gentleman –ly There are compound nouns following the pattern adjective + noun, such as nobleman, highbrow, middlebrow, lowbrow, lazysusan, flatfoot, etc. Thus, the third cut separates the two free bases of the compound noun gentleman, resulting in the two immediate constituents: gentle and man: gentle man We have now shown the layers of structure by which the word has been composed, down to its ultimate constituents: un–, gentle, man, and –ly. un– gentle man –ly Doing word diagrams, like the one right above, to show layers of structure, we make successive divisions into two parts, each of which is called AN IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENT, abbreviated IC. The process is continued until all the component morphemes of a word, the morphemes of which the word is composed, have been isolated. 65
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