In its 2012 decision ruling life without parole for teenagers convicted of murder as excessive, as well as in earlier rulings, the U.S. Supreme Court argued that it was important to incorporate the latest brain and behavioral science research into sentencing decisions. Show
Writing for the court in what is called the Miller decision, Justice Elena Kagan, noted studies that show only a relatively small proportion of adolescents who engage in illegal activity develop entrenched patterns of problem behavior. She also noted developments in psychology and brain science “show fundamental differences between juvenile and adult minds,” including those parts of the brain involved in behavior control, impulse control, risk avoidance and planning ahead. “We reasoned that those findings — of transient rashness, proclivity for risk, and inability to assess consequences — both lessened a child’s ‘moral culpability’ and enhanced the prospect that, as the years go by and neurological development occurs, his deficiencies will be reformed,” Kagan wrote. The Supreme Court isn’t arguing that minors who murder shouldn’t be punished but that they shouldn’t be treated the same as adults, said Dr. Brooke Kraushaar, a forensic psychologist in St. Louis. He has worked for decades with juveniles who have committed crimes, including more than two dozen who were in prison in Missouri and Illinois for murder and who ultimately became eligible for parole after the Miller decision. She did not work with Ronald Clements or James Hardy but did work with Theron Reed “Pete” Roland II. All three were found guilty of first-degree murder in the death of Steven Newberry in 1987. Clements has been released, Roland is slated for release this summer and Hardy in 2022. “We need to factor in the developmental characteristics of adolescence and their capacity for change into their sentences,” Kraushaar said. She wants the public to understand that the brains of teenagers are different from the brains of adults. “There are measurable, physiological changes,” she said. During adolescence, decisions and actions are often driven by a more primitive and instinctual part the brain that is called the limbic system, “which is the most emotional part of the brain,” she said. “That is the dominant part of the brain,” Kraushaar said, adding that is why teens are often more emotional and impulsive, subject to peer pressure and sometimes given over to more anti-social behavior. On top of that, dopamine production is different in teenagers. Dopamine has been called the “feel good” neurotransmitter. In teenagers, its base level is lower, but when something excites them, they produce more of it than adults, meaning they are subject to more extreme swings than adults. But as teenagers mature, a different part of the brain, the prefrontal cortex, takes over. It is that part of the brain associated with higher-order thinking and executive functions, such as response inhibition, planning ahead, weighing risks and rewards, and the ability to consider multiple sources of information. “That part of the brain isn’t really done developing until the mid-20s,” said Kraushaar. “The brain doesn’t really stop developing until they are 24. That’s when the remodel is done and the prefrontal cortex is taking over as the CEO.” On top of that, family and environmental factors, such as abuse and neglect or poor parenting, further complicate the ability of teenagers to make choices, as well as the environment, such as living in a high-crime community. But she added: “Adolescents have the ability to rehabilitate and outgrow behavior. In thinking of these guys who have been incarcerated for 25-30 years, most are remorseful and accept responsibility.” Key points to remember about adolescent brain development
When does brain development happen?The brain develops very rapidly in the first 3 to 5 years of life, and all the structure and building blocks are present by the age of 9. The different centres of the brain develop and become functionally connected over time. The last part to mature is the prefrontal lobe. This happens during adolescence. Many things affect brain development including genetics, individual and environmental factors. Why does the brain take so long to develop?Human beings are the only animals that are born completely helpless, and we have the biggest size of adult brain. If we were born with an adult-sized brain our heads would not fit through our mothers' hips. Brain development that continues after birth also helps us better adapt to our living environment and increases our chance of survival. We used to think that once children had gone through puberty and growth had finished, development was complete. Then MRI scanners were invented and they showed that the brain goes on changing for a long time after puberty has finished, and may not be complete until nearly 30 years of age. The following image shows that the brain doesn't change much in size between 5 and 20 years of age. What changes is the colour. The blue colour shows all the connections happening between all the parts of the brain that are already formed.  How does the brain develop?Some people like to think of the brain in 4 parts. 1. The spinal cord and the base of the brainDelivers messages to and from all parts of the body and controls what happens in the parts you don't have to consciously think about like the heart, lungs and digestion. 2. The cerebellumControls and coordinates movement and other brain processes. 3. The amygdala and hippocampusControl emotion and memory. 4. The cortexConnects up all the senses and thinking part, including the prefrontal cortex which is involved in fine judgement and control. Brain developmentThe brain is thought to develop and connect functionally in stages. The emotional areas of the brain (the limbic system) are present at birth, but regulation of emotions moves from being more of a shared responsibility (with parents) in childhood, to an individual responsibility in adolescence. This process requires new connections to be formed between the cortical or higher level thinking and the emotional areas of the brain. It also leads to adult level decision making, planning and thinking. Which part of their brain do teenagers use most of the time?Teens often 'think with their feelings'Experiments have been done to show that teens often 'think with their feelings'. Scans of the brain can be done to show different parts lighting up when they are being used. When adults and teens look at faces showing different emotions, the part of their brains that light up are different. Adults use their prefrontal cortex to look at faces and try to decide what emotion is happening. Teenagers use their amygdala rather than their prefrontal cortex most of the time. In other words, they are using their emotions to try and understand emotion. It helps if adults can understand how this feels for teensTo understand how this feels, imagine you have lost your keys and you are already late for work. Think about how many times you look for the keys in the same place - 5, 10 even 20 times. You panic - you no longer think with your cortex, you are thinking with your emotions. Remember how it feels if someone tells you to calm down and think sensibly about when you last had them. That is how your teenager feels when they are running on their emotions because their brain hasn't developed that linkage. When talking to teens, be careful to check what emotion they are seeing in youOften teens can misinterpret emotions and they see anger when in reality you are feeling anxious. This can often lead to many moments of miscommunication. So, when you are talking to teenagers be careful to check what emotion they are seeing in you, and make sure you always acknowledge their emotions first and then help them to be able to think about what they are feeling. What can help brain development?Talking to your teen really helpsAdults who talk to children as they are growing up really help. A safe environment where they have consistent, loving support is vital for the brain to develop well. Young people need adults to believe in them and encourage them. Teenagers respond better to rewards than to punishment. They need clear, consistent boundaries, and very importantly, their growing capacity and ability to do things independently needs to be respected. Teens need opportunities to grow many different skillsAs their brain grows and gets connected functionally, they need to learn that they don't have to be dependent on their parents but can become interdependent with other adults as they mature. They need opportunities to grow many different skills and to contribute those skills in a way that is valued. The brain develops in a way that produces lots of connections that are then removed if they are not used. So take care to encourage lots of connections to be used. Develop good habits around activities like thinking positively, eating and exercise during the teen yearsAnother principle is that when connections 'fire together they wire together', so this is a vital time to develop good habits around activities like thinking positively, eating and exercise as that wires together for adulthood. We know that the brain can change throughout life but it is much easier to get the 'wiring right at the start, in teenage times'. It takes a lot of hard work to rewire as adults. What harms the development of the brain?Abuse (verbal, emotional, physical, sexual or neglect)It is now well established that if children experience any sort of abuse (verbal, emotional, physical, sexual or neglect), especially in the early years of life, it can affect how the brain is wired and functions. Sometimes this is hard to change, so it is very important to protect children throughout their development. This is especially important at times of peak brain development during pregnancy and the first 5 years of life and during the second phase of brain development around puberty. Alcohol and drugsRead and watch videos about adolescent brain development and the effect of alcohol and drugs on the developing teenage brain. Find out about teens, drugs and the developing brain Read about alcohol and young people How does the prefrontal cortex change in adolescence?During adolescence, myelination and synaptic pruning in the prefrontal cortex increase s , improving the efficiency of information processing, and neural connections between the prefrontal cortex and other regions of the brain are strengthened. However, this growth takes time and the growth is uneven.
How the adolescent brain differs from a child's brain?Inside the teenage brain
The main change is that unused connections in the thinking and processing part of your child's brain (called the grey matter) are 'pruned' away. At the same time, other connections are strengthened. This is the brain's way of becoming more efficient, based on the 'use it or lose it' principle.
What is the difference between the prefrontal cortex and limbic systems of the teenage brain?Understanding adolescents' behavior
The prefrontal cortex is the part of the brain responsible for reasoning, thinking, logic, creativity, inhibitory control etc. The limbic system is responsible for processing emotions such as anger and sensitivity to danger, and for for reward processing.
What happens in the frontal lobe during adolescence?On the unpredictable behavior of teens
Teenagers do have frontal lobes, which are the seat of our executive, adult-like functioning like impulse control, judgment and empathy. But the frontal lobes haven't been connected with fast-acting connections yet.
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